10. Learning

10. Learning - Transcript

Objectives
This unit will help you to understand
The importance of learning
The existing theoretical approaches to learning
The principles of learning
The steps in OB modification process
Introduction
Learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge or skills through study practice or experience Learning brings about a permanent change in the behavior of a person It is of high significance in the study of OB as most of the behaviors exhibited by people in organizations are learned Understanding ways in which people learn helps to predict and explain the behavior of organizations In fact organizations like individuals must learn new skills and acquire knowledge about emerging theories and techniques so as to survive and compete effectively in the dynamic business environment This unit explains the different theories of learning and suggests how behavior can be managed
Significance of Learning
The concept of learning is significant in understanding developing and managing human resources in an organization Scholars and practitioners of behavioral science agree that analyzing learning helps in managing the human resources of an organization effectively as all the behaviors of people are learnt either directly or indirectly For example the skills of a worker attitude of a manager style of dressing by an accountant are all learned behaviors Hence the process and principles of learning can be utilized by organizations to mold the behavior of employees and enhance their performance
The Theoretical Process of Learning
A perfect theory of learning would be one which can be applied across different situations and different sections of people Behavioral scientists are still making efforts to develop such a theory The existing theoretical approaches to learning are the behavioristic cognitive and social learning theories These theories help to understand the behavior of people in the workplace
Behavioristic Theories
Classical behaviorists like Ivan Pavlov and John B Watson associated learning with stimulus and response S R connection But BF Skinner an operant behaviorist proposed that learning followed as a consequence of response The theories of the operant behaviorists are based on the connection between response and stimulus R S connection The S R connection deals with classical or respondent conditioning while the R S connection deals with instrumental or operant conditioning and these connectionist theories help to understand how people acquire patterns of behavior
Classical conditioning
It is defined as a process in which an existing neutral stimulus when paired with an unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response Classical conditioning involves learning a conditioned response by associating a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus
Operant conditioning
The operant conditioning theory or reinforcement theory proved that the consequences determine the behavior that results in learning According to this theory behavior is strengthened and is likely to be repeated if it is reinforced Skinner believed that specific forms of behavior could be increased if they were followed by pleasant consequences He held that the effectiveness of the rewards is more if they are given immediately after the desired behavior whereas behavior which is not rewarded or is punished is less likely to be repeated
To understand the learned behavior in animals B F Skinner conducted some experiments He designed an apparatus called an operant chamber or Skinner box and used rats and pigeons for his experiments The Skinner box had a lever If the lever was pressed a small amount of food dropped down into the box Skinner found that a hungry rat which was placed in the operant chamber started exploring for food It pressed the lever and got a bit of food Later the rat learned to associate the pressing of the lever with getting food The food was a reward for the rat when it acted in the desired manner This form of learning which is based on trial and error is called operant conditioning
Cognitive Theories
The cognitive approach has been applied to many theories of OB particularly to the theories of motivation Edward Tolman Tolman a theorist of cognitive psychology stated that cognitive learning consisted of a relationship between cognitive environmental cues and expectation To test this theory Tolman conducted controlled experiments on white rats As a part of the experiment the rats were made to run through a complicated maze in search of food When the rats came across food placed at certain points in the maze they started associating the presence of food with certain cognitive cues As a result learning took place Based on his research Tolman concluded that rats and other animals developed cognitive maps of their environment He therefore considered learning as developing a pattern of behavior from bits of knowledge or cognition of the environment The cognitive theory influenced many industrial training programs which aimed to strengthen the relationship between the cognitive cues like supervisory organizational and job procedures and the expectations of employees for rewards
Social Learning Theory
The social learning theory assumes that learning can take place through vicarious or modeling processes and self control processes apart from stimulus and responses
Modeling processes
NE Miller and JC Dollard opined that learning need not always result from S R or R S connections and emphasized on observational learning To examine the process of learning Albert Bandura Bandura carried out research on modeling processes He stated that people learnt from others by observing and enacting He added that modeling included sub processes like attention retention reproduction and reinforcement all of which were interrelated
Self efficacy
Self efficacy was defined by Bandura as the self perceptions of how well a person can cope with situations as they arise According to the research conducted by Bandura there is a fair relation between self efficacy and work related performance People who think that they can perform a task well are people with high self efficacy and they perform the task better than those with low self efficacy i e people who think they cannot perform a task or think they will fail
Principles of Learning
Reinforcement and punishment are important principles of learning In general reinforcement is considered to be a better approach to make people learn desirable behavior Reinforcement refers to a stimulus which strengthens the probability of a particular response being repeated In organizations reinforcement can be in the form of appreciating the good work done by an employee or giving a hike in salaries and or position Reinforcement can be either positive or negative Positive reinforcement motivates repeated behavior as it results in desirable consequences Reinforcement can also be negative where an individual repeats behavior so as to avoid a negative consequence Apart from reinforcement behavior can be managed using punishments Punishment is defined as an action that weakens a particular behavior and reduces the frequency of that behavior Punishment usually involves applying an undesirable consequence or withdrawing a desirable one
Edward L Thorndike proposed the Law of effect which helps to understand the principle of reinforcement
Law of Effect
The law of effect was given by Thorndike in 1920 He stressed that learning involved forming of bonds between stimuli and responses The law of effect states that repetition of responses is more likely to happen if followed by pleasant consequences compared to responses followed by unpleasant consequences The law has been proved in controlled learning experiments as well as in real life However it has some exceptions For instance employees may not learn from failures related to their jobs if they have strong self efficacy and believe that what they are doing is right So they may not obey the instructions of the manager to change their behavior In spite of this drawback many behavioral scientists have accepted the law of effect
Meaning of Reinforcement
Reinforcement is in general explained as anything a person finds rewarding But this definition uses reinforcement and reward interchangeably A clearer explanation is given in the law of effect The law of effect states that repetition of responses is more likely to happen if followed by pleasant consequences than if it is followed by unpleasant consequences reinforcement is anything which increases the intensity of response by encouraging a person to repeat the behavior
Positive and negative reinforcers and punishment
Positive reinforcement strengthens and increases the repetition of a behavior which causes a desirable consequence Negative reinforcement and punishment are common forms of negative control of behavior Negative reinforcement also strengthens and increases the probability of a particular behavior being repeated but by withdrawing an undesirable consequence Punishment weakens and decreases the probability of occurrence of a particular behavior Figure 10 1 shows the difference between positive and negative reinforcements and punishments
Figure 10 1 Difference between Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment

Behavioral Management
Companies will have to unlearn their past and forget it The future will not be an extrapolation of the past Prahalad 1997
Behavioral management is positively influencing the performance of employees using the reinforcement theory or operant conditioning Robert Kreitner and Fred Luthans termed behavioral management as Organizational Behavior Modification or OB Mod
Steps in the OB Mod Process
To encourage desirable behavior in employees managers follow the following steps in the OB Mod process
Identify critical performance behaviors
Measure the critical performance behaviors
Carry out a functional analysis of the behaviors
Develop an effective intervention strategy
Evaluate the intervention strategy to ensure performance improvement
These steps are represented in the figure 10 2
The challenge for leaders in the twenty first century will be how to release the brainpower of their organizations Bennis 1997
Figure 10 2 Flowchart of Steps in the OB Mod Process

Summary
All types of behaviors in organizations are learned either directly or indirectly The theories to study learning are classified as behavioristic cognitive and social learning theories
Behavioristic theories associated learning with stimulus S and response R The S R and R S connections were used respectively to describe learning through classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Cognitive theories related learning to knowledge of environment
Social learning theories explained learning through modeling processes and self efficacy
Reinforcement and punishment are the principles of learning which investigate repeated behaviors
Behavioral management helps in managing the behavior of employees in organizations to bring about effective performance Organizational Behavior Modification is carried out in steps such as identifying the factors which influence performance and measuring analyzing and intervening with them to bring about performance improvement